[EBOOK] INTRODUCTORY MYCOLOGY (Fourth Edition), C. J. Alexopoulos, C. W. Mims and M. Blackwell, JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC.

Since the Third Edition of Introductory Micology was published in 1979 the organisms commonly known as fungi have been recognized for their utility in developing and testing many kinds of hypotheses, as model systems in biology, and as creatures of pure beauty and delight despite misconceptions in a somtimes mycophobic world. Applications of modern research techniques, biomedical, agricultural and industrial concerns, and increased awareness of various ecological and phylogenetic issues all have helped to contribute to an explosion of knowledge relating to fungi and all have a base in traditional mycology. Both the amount and diversity of this knowledge presented a dilemma and made it inevitable that much interesting material would not be covered in this revision. In the end we decided to approach this revision by producing a book from which we ourselves could teach and from which our own students could learn. For us this meant the book would be phylogenetically based in the tradition since the First Edition (1952) written by our major professor C. J. Alexopoulos. We firmly believe that the taxonomic approach provides a framework with predictive value. Therefore the discussions of the many activities of fungi that directly or indirectly impact other living things including humans are discussed in the context of their close relatives. We hope that you will use the index to search out ecological topics such as "endophytes," "plant pathogens," "medically important fungi," and "dispersal" or genetics information such as "mating types" and "vegetative compatibility" that may appear in several chapters.

In a vigorous field there is never a good time either to write or to revise a textbook. The timing was particularly bad for us because of the rapid developments occurring in the area of fungal systematics. While it might have been wise for us to wait a few years for the air to clear we decided to proceed with the project and do the best job we could based on the data currently available. However because we did not want to clutter the literature with many new names we chose to use a less than formal taxonomic scheme especially at higher taxonomic levels. Instead the phylogenetic trees are indicative of these related groups as they are understood currently.

Based on the best phylogenetic information available the kingdom Fungi includes four phyla- Chytridiomycota, Zygomycota, As-comycota, and Basidiomycota. Other organisms traditionally known as fungi (Oomycota, Hy-phochytriornycota) and four groups sometimes called slime molds are not closely related to kingdom Fungi but we often will refer to all of these groups as fungi. Because these organisms all occur in the usual habitats of Fungi and have similar modes of nutrition a mycologist or plant pathologist would be incomplete without knowledge of them. We therefore have provided a rather complete coverage of all the organisms traditionally considered as fungi so that a mycologist now can be described as someone who studies fungi not only Fungi. As you might have noticed formal taxa at all levels are italicized. This will avoid confusion over what is a formal name, a device suggested by the most recent International Code of Botanical Nomenclature. You also may have noticed that we mentioned "phylum," and the Code now allows this substitution for the category "division."

Is the book too heavy? This is equivalent to saying it contains too much knowledge about fungi. Our experience in teaching mycology tells us that it is difficult to cram as much as we would like into a term. But we also know that many students want to learn a great deal more about fungi than v\e can cover in a single course whatever the length of the term. For this group of students we say, read on! However with practical considerations in mind we did our best to produce a book that could be used effectively in different ways. For example the first three chapters as well as those chapters and chapter sections that introduce the various phyla should be appropriate for shorter undergraduate and graduate courses alike. Other sections of the book relating to specific groups of fungi are considerably more detailed but should permit interested students to delve more deeply into some groups of fungi. The intent of so many cited references is to lead students into mycological literature. The numerous illustrations, life cycle drawings, and tables should be useful to students at all levels. A number of the drawings included in this edition were retained from the previous edition of the book while new drawings were skillfully prepared by Carol Gubbins Hahn. Although we prepared many new photographs specifically for this text, others were graciously supplied by workers from many parts of the world who are acknowledged in the figure legends. Many individuals also devoted much time and effort to reviewing chapters for us and answering many questions. Because of this input the book is truly a joint effort of the mycological community atlarge. Any mistakes or shortcomings you find are, however, ours alone.

During the three years of preparation of the Fourth Edition we increasingly relied on computerized data bases and on the Internet. It is possible to communicate almost instantly with any mycologist anywhere in the world as long as that mycologist has an electronic mail address. We recommend that every student become familiar with the mycological resources such as those listed on the Mycological Home Page of the World Wide Web, There you will find such listings as type specimens of fungi in certain herbaria, addresses, newsletters including that of the Mycological Society of America, and directions to get to other listings of mycological interest. Another valuable resource provides DMA sequences of organisms that have been submitted to the data bases that collect this type of information along with the reference and, often, an abstract if it has been published. Information on cultures in almost any culture collection in the world is readily available. Meeting abstracts also now are circulated this wav. Much of this information is available much sooner than or even in place of publication of hard copies. In fact we would appreciate hearing about any suggestions you might have for the revision of this edition by e-mail.

[EBOOK] INTRODUCTORY MYCOLOGY (Fourth Edition), C. J. Alexopoulos, C. W. Mims and M. Blackwell, JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC.

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[EBOOK] NEGLECTED CROPS: 1492 From a different perspective, Edited by J.E. Hernández Bermejo and J. León, Published in collaboration with the Botanical Garden of Córdoba (Spain), as part of the Etnobotánica 92 Programme (Andalusia,1992)

Conceived as a project by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Neglected crops: 1492 from a different perspective was copublished with the Botanical Garden of Córdoba, Spain. This cooperation came about as a result of the “Etnobotánica 92” congress, convened in September 1992 by the Botanical Garden and the City of Cordoba. The contents and aims of the congress were fully consistent with the sentiment behind the planned publication which would thus serve as an initial protocol for discussion at a symposium on neglected crops, oriented towards defining priorities, designing new projects for researching and improving these crops and planning strategies to Finance them.

The aim of the book is to analyse the present situation and the prospects for improving certain traditional crops that were more important in other times and have now either been completely forgotten or relegated to a marginal role. After discussing the repercussions that 1492 had on natural resources and ways of life, both in America and Spain, the discovery of America and successive eras are studied, not as historic events that gave rise to a great genetic and cultural flow but, on the contrary, as possible immediate or delayed causes of certain crops being neglected.

The concept of a neglected or “marginalized” species in agricultural terms needs to be made clear. It basically refers to cultivated crops and therefore excludes those species which, in spite of their possible cthnobotanical or economic interest, arc taken directly from their wild populations. They are crops which, at other times and under other conditions, were of greater importance in traditional agriculture and in the diets of indigenous peoples and other local communities. It does not necessarily imply promising crops. This is because they have already been cultivated and because the aim of their reinstatement is not to convert them into crops for intensive cultivation or export. Marginalized crops are those whose use and productivity need to be considerably increased as a means of raising the living conditions and improving die diet of ethnic groups and populations accustomed to living in economic systems that have engaged little interchange.

How has this situation of “marginalization” come about? There have been various contributine factors: the introduction of species that supplanted traditional ones; the loss of competitiveness of these species compared with other more productive species; gradual changes in demand; economic, cultural, political or religious prohibitions; and the disappearance of ethnic groups that understood the techniques and uses of the plants as well as their cultivation methods. We need to recognize, as the present study does, that among the social, agronomic and biological reasons for the neglect of such plants, it is the social factors that predominate. In many cases this has been a consequence of the premeditated eradication of self-sufficient ways of life and their replacement by other foreign systems, based on outside interests. Thus, in the traditional societies of Latin America, a dependence on external forces developed and subsequently resulted in poverty.

Four main sections of this book basically deal with Latin America, where three areas of anthropological action are identified, corresponding to the three main centres of phytogenetic diversity and origin of agricultural experiments: Mesoamerica, the Andean region and the Amazon. In keeping with the general approach of “Etnobotánica 92” — organized to analyse the consequences of 500 years of genetic and ethnobotanical exchanges between the two sides of the Atlantic - it seemed logical to include a final section on the marginalization of crops in Spain and its possible connection with 1492.

The list of species studied has been restricted to food crops and. with a few exceptions, to those exclusively of interest as human food. This does not mean that the same phenomenon of marginal ization. as defined here, has not occurred in other types of crops. Perhaps the most drastic cases are to be found among industrial crops: dye, fibre or medicinal plants that have now been replaced by synthetic products, whose cultivation is left to the poorest communities which are unable to obtain the artificial substitutes, or which survive to be used at times when, as a result of certain market contingencies, the natural product once again can claim a limited consumption.

Some chapters arc monospecific while others refer to groups of crops which are taxonomically and agronomically close. With the aim of meeting the basic objective of improving agricultural species in regions where thev are traditionally exploited, attention has been paid to the following points:

Importance of genetic resources. Emphasis is placed both on the direct use of new gemiplasm with a superior yield, quality or resistance, and its application in previous genetic improvement programmes, using more sophisticated techniques. Mention is also made of conservation programmes and germplasm banks as well as of national and international institutions that coordinate conservation activities and the use of these resources. Genetic variability or biodiversity (known cultivars, related species, wild intraspecific variability, etc.) are evaluated and the current risks of genetic erosion are assessed.

Forms of consumption. The direct causes of or factors contri buting to crop marginalization include the loss-either through neglect or cultural suppression - ot forms of consumption (preparation, preservation, culinary habits alternative uses) of foods based on marginalized traditional plants. For this reason, it has been considered of the utmost importance not only to reinstate the use of these crops but also to highlight their nutritional values and forms of preparation.

Prospects for improvement and limitations. The attention of specialists has been centred on rescuing neglected crops and, therefore, on indicating the direction to be taken in order to improve them. Age-old Clops must be developed while taking into account the needs of the communities which consume them. With modem technology, it is possible to put improvement programmes into practice but, for this, the starting-point must be the experience acquired by fanners themselves. Research must be carried out at various levels and should range from the study and evaluation of seed material and traditional cultivation practices to the inclusion of a biotechnology suited to farmers’ practical problems.

In spite of the fact that the editors of this work laid down a very rigorous theme structure, the diverse nature of the subjects dealt with and the different approaches of specialists from more than nine countries have necessarily led to a certain lack of uniformity which has in fact enriched the work. Highly specific information is frequently provided, much of which has never before been published. Also included are value judgements, observations and personal opinions which may be of use to those who carry out field work.

The first two chapters present an overall view of the biodiversity of American phytogenetic resources and the processes that caused marginalization. This phenomenon is linked directly or indirectly to the introduction of flora from the Old World into America from 1492 onwards.

In the section on Mesoamei ica, some little-known beans, gourds and other native cucurbits, custard apples and chcrimoyas, prince’s feather (huautli) and*amaranth, sapodillas, Spanish plums and lomatilloes or husk-tomatoes are studied. The numerous lesser crops of the region have not been included because of their restricted geographical distribution.

In the section on Andean agriculture, crops are grouped into grains and pulses, tubers, roots and fruits. The grains studied include quinoa, canihua (qaniwa), love-lies-bleeding (kiwicha) and Andean lupin (tarwi); tubers include oca, ullucu, bitter potatoes and mashwa; roots include arracacha, leafeup (yaeón), maca and mauka; and fruits include the mountain papaw, sweet cucumber and tree tomato.

The section dealing with Amazonian and Caribbean agriculture examines neglected crops in the Amazon region understood in the broad sense and, by extension, species of the Caribbean region and others that are subtropical in environment and origin. There is a study of the cupuaẹu, peach-palm, Paullinia sp„ araza, feijoa, jaboticaba, Guinea arrowroot, Paraguay tea and yautia or tanier.

The last section examines the possible influence of American flora on the marginalization of various Iberian crops. Leguminous species (for animal feed and human consumption) and horticultural species are considered. Fruit-trees and groups of plants of separate economic interest for human consumption ought to have been included.

Many other crops have not been mentioned and perhaps only a minority of those which urgently need to be rescued have been included but it is hoped that at least a contribution has been made towards increasing awareness of such crops, thereby encouraging an exchange of available information.

What is sought now is the participation of different national and international institutions that may be able to contribute resources, technology and expertise to less developed countries where marginalized crops play an important role as a source of food.

Perhaps what should first be achieved is a change of attitude in Latin American countries themselves regarding the species and the products which are derived from them, but which are currently neglected either because of the passive or disparaging attitude of consumers, or because of the lack of incentives to promote and improve them. These efforts must be accompanied by new studies on postharvest handling, marketing channels and the publicizing of nutritional values, bearing in mind that the prime beneficiaries of this undertaking must be the farmers and consumers.

J.E. Hernández Bermejo and .J. León

[EBOOK] NEGLECTED CROPS: 1492 From a different perspective, Edited by J.E. Hernández Bermejo and J. León, Published in collaboration with the Botanical Garden of Córdoba (Spain), as part of the Etnobotánica 92 Programme (Andalusia,1992)

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[EBOOK] Fundamentals of Plant Physiology, Lincoln Taiz - Eduardo Zeiger - Ian Max Moller - Angus Murphy, Published by SINAUER ASSOCIATES

Over the course of publishing six editions of Plant Physiology (now Plant Physiology and Development), it has become abundantly clear to us that, as a consequence of the spectacular advances in plant developmental genetics, the field of plant physiology has broadened in scope and increased in depth to the point where it is no longer possible for a single textbook to serve the needs of all courses on plant physiology.

Based on extensive feedback from instructors affiliated with a wide range of universities and colleges, we designed Fundamentals of Plant Physiology for instructors seeking a shorter text that emphasizes concepts as opposed to detailed, comprehensive coverage. To accommodate instructors wishing to focus their lectures on canonical plant physiology topics, the treatment of plant development, including hormonal signaling and photoreceptors, has been greatly condensed and reorganized. In keeping with a conceptual approach, genetic pathways have been streamlined by prioritizing functional mechanisms and by substituting descriptive terms for three-letter gene names whenever possible.

Throughout the text, explanations have been revised for easier comprehension, and figures have been simplified and annotated for greater clarity. To further improve readability, we have switched to a single-column format that includes a running glossary in the margins. In working on Fundamentals of Plant Physiology, our primary goal has been to provide a more concise, accessible, and focused treatment of the field of plant physiology, while at the same time maintaining the high standard of scientific accuracy and pedagogical richness for which Plant Physiology and Development is known.

We wish to thank Massimo Maffei for his suggested revisions to the physiological chapters. This book could not have been produced without the extensive help and support of the outstanding team of professionals at Sinauer Associates, now an imprint of Oxford University Press. We are especially grateful to our project editor, Laura Green, whose considerable expertise in plant physiology and biochemistry, and thorough dissection and critique of each chapter, which sometimes entailed major reorganizing, helped us to optimize the logical flow of topics and avoid as many factual errors as is humanly possible. Our second line of defense against errors and stylistic problems was our tireless copyeditor, Liz Pierson, who did wonders to shape the newly designed chapters into a seamless, integrated, and coherent whole. As always, the talented artist Elizabeth Morales implemented all the changes we requested to existing figures and created several new, attractive figures as well.

We owe the new single-column format of the book, including the running glossary, to the creative talents of Chris Small and his production team. Ann Chiara designed the inside of the book and crafted the layout. Another new design feature was use of chapter openers featuring plants pertinent to each chapter's content. Mark Siddall, our photo researcher, is responsible for finding the many fine and appropriate photos for use as chapter openers, and Beth Roberge Friedrichs deserves credit for designing the distinctive new cover for Fundamentals of Plant Physology. We are also grateful to Johanna Walkowicz for laying the foundation for the book's conception by devising and compiling surveys obtained from a wide selection of instructors. Thanks to her detailed analysis of the data, we were able to identify those topics of plant physiology that were most often covered in courses.

Finally, we extend our deepest gratitude to our publisher, Andy Sinauer, whose creative and innovative contributions to Fundamentals of Plant Physiology, as well as to previous editions of Plant Physiology and Development, are too numerous to list. Andy is retiring this year, and we are extremely sorry to see him go. He leaves behind a magnificent legacy, Sinauer Associates, that is second to none among publishers of scientific textbooks. Although we will sorely miss Andy's wisdom and invaluable insights, we look forward to a productive ongoing relationship with our new publisher, Oxford University Press.

Lincoln Taiz Eduardo Zeiger

Ian Max Moller Angus Murphy

[EBOOK] Fundamentals of Plant Physiology, Lincoln Taiz - Eduardo Zeiger - Ian Max Moller - Angus Murphy, Published by SINAUER ASSOCIATES

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[EBOOK] THE NEW SEED-STARTERS Handbook, BY NANCY BLIBEL, Illustrations by Frank Fretz, Photographs by Alison Miksch & Rodale Press Photography Staff

Since 1957, when we tried (arc failed!) to grow radishes in a window box outside our third-floor apartment in Philadelphia, my husband, Mike, and 1 have been learning about growing vegetables. We got off to slow' start. I had only vague memories of the Victory Garden my parents grew for a few years in our New England backyard, and an insistent yearning to begin a garden of my own. Mike had grown up on home-raised vegetables—a surprisingly limited variety of them, though, mostly grown from seed his mother had carefully saved from one harvest to the next: cabbage, potatoes, beans, carrots, beets dill, cucumbers, and sunflowers. Later, during a stay in Germany, he had taken a course in gardening at a free university of sorts. Mike wanted a garden, too.

When we moved into our first house. wre bought digging forks and shovels almost before the ink was dry on the deed. We started that first years with tomatoes and beans and many flowers. It took us several years to progress to planting a garden that we could cat from all summer, but by 1970 our vegetable garden was carrying US year round. Today wc hardly ever buy vegetable. Our year-round supplv of vegetables is due in large part to starting seeds early indoors and making continuous outdoor plantings of varieties of food chosen for quality and ease of storage.

Along the way, we've learned a lot about how' and when to start different vegetables. Trial and error has helped. Older relatives and neighbors have been generous with advice and lore, and we never start a new gardening year without thinking fondly of our different mentors and how much they have given US over the years. Reading about gardens and gardening, seeds, plants, soil, and insects has given US a framework that often supports relationships between what we’ve observed and what we’ve been told. Mostly, though, we’ve muddled along, taking longer than it now seems we should have to see and use the full potential of a piece of ground and a packet of seeds.

That’s whv I decided to write the first edition of The Seed-Starter’s Handbook—to help other gardeners make that jump from dabbling on self-sufficiency sooner and more easily than we did. At the same time, I hoped that experienced gardeners would find in it some insight into possibilities never considered, into alternatives and experiments in areas of gardening where the final word had yet to be written.

You know how it is when you put the phone down. You then remember all the otherthings you had intended to say. So it has been with this book. From the time the first edition was published, I’ve wished that I had included more about growing other garden flowers and wild plants from seed. In the ten years since I sent off that first manuscript, I’ve visited many gardens, asked a lot of questions, talked to numerous researchers, tried growing many new kinds of seeds, and read thousands of pages of gardening research, lore, and advice. Some of my learning grew out of my failures— with stubbornly dormant linden tree seeds, light-seeking scarlet sage seeds, and wildflower seeds that wouldn't germinate without prechilling.

The result is The New Seed-Starters Handbook, which contains new sections that detail the principles and techniques for starting garden flowers, wildflowcrs, herbs, trees, and shrubs from seed. This material has been combined with the chapter from the first edition on growing vegetables and garden fruits from seed to create to handy encyclopedia section. No book of this size can include every possible plant in each of these categories, but I’ve tried to give you a selection of the best. Although this is a handbook, not a textbook, I’ve included Latin names for the plants under discussion, just so we're all sure we're talking about the same plant, and for your convenience in ordering seeds. Common names are charming but often varv locally. Latin names are accurate worldwide.

Apart from the encyclopedia section and several additional chapters, the other new material in the book has been inserted into the existing text via new words, paragraphs, page, and sections. These additions and revisions represent an eight-month distilling process during which I evaluated and interpreted a whole flic of new material accumulated since the day The Seed-Starter’s Handbook was established. Not a chapter remains untouched. To be honest, gardening friends, rechecking all the facts, summarizing old material, adding newly discovered findings, and writing new chapters has been more difficult than writing the original manuscript. I’m hugely relieved that it is done, but also delighted to have had the chance to improve my original work.

Consider this book a manual of procedures, giving you the step-by -step how and when of various planting techniques. Look, too, in every chapter, for the principles on which these techniques are based, and count on finding at least a few open-ended questions that might challenge old suppositions or suggest new growing frontiers.

There's no one right way to do most of these things, you know. A good many workable options are open to you in planting seeds. I've tried to suggest the range of possibilities. The choice is up to you.

Let this book be smudged. Let it be marked. It’s meant to be used. I hope it will make a difference in your garden, and ultimately, on your table.

Once again, I wish you joy in planting seeds. The seed-starter works, always, at the edge of a mystery. Though we may take it for granted, we are part of that mystery, along with the fragility, the resilience, the dependability of the green world. Happy planting!

[EBOOK] THE NEW SEED-STARTERS Handbook, BY NANCY BLIBEL, Illustrations by Frank Fretz, Photographs by Alison Miksch & Rodale Press Photography Staff

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[EBOOK] To GM, or not to GM, that is the question! (Microbiologist)

The current losses of food crops to disease are unacceptable and so applied microbiology has an opportunity to make a substantial difference to our future health and wellbeing. This is especially true for late blight - a disease of potatoes and tomatoes that is caused by Phytophthorđ infestons (an oomycetc).

Potatoes are a key staple in many countries. Amongst starchy foods they are relatively nutrient rich and highly productive compared with cereals (though less water efficient). However, yield increases have flattened and losses to disease are significant; the cost to farmers of late blight is estimated at £60M a year in the UK alone.

Phytophthora infestans evolves remarkably rapidly, making the disease a particularly intractable problem; emerging strains have been able to overcome the resistance to infection seen previously in some potato varieties.

Plants that are susceptible to infection can be treated with fungicides, but those that arc effective carry high environmental risks. The popular Bordeaux Mixture -a copper-based fungicide used to prevent late blight - is in the process of being phased out by the EU, along with other copper formulations.

[EBOOK] To GM, or not to GM, that is the question! (Microbiologist)

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[EBOOK] A Textbook Of Fungi, Bacteria and Viruses, H.C. DUBE, VANI EDUCATIONAL BOOKS

Major scientific breakthroughs in modem biology and in particular the branch which at present goes by the name of molecular biology, have centred around fungi, bacteria and viruses. What has been learnt about the how and why of life, in the last hundred years with the-help of the above three is by any yardstick a biological revolution. Man moved mountains but remained ignorant as to what ailed him or his cattle and crops. Hundreds of thousands of people frequently died in one stroke of epidemic like that of smallpox. The loss of cattle and crops was equally devastating. As late as 1840’s a potato famine in Ireland caused death of over one million people and an equally large number fltd to other places. But sweet are the uses of adversity as man has always been impressed by calamity. The arm-chair scientists could no more defer decision. Thehgernx^heory’ of disease propounded by Louis Pasteur, and Robert Koch was a great event in human history. Bacteria were proved to be the cause of several human and animal diseases. Anton de Bary, proved that Phytophthora, a fungus, was responsible for the Irish potato famine. The journey since then has been thrilling. The mysterious tobacco mosaic virus came as a parting gift of the 19th century. Many discoveries, having the effect of demolishing bombshells provided many intellectual shocks. TMV, though no longer as mysterious as it was in 1920’s quite often makes scientists feel like a child playing on the sea shore. The tempo of research is such that even really significant discoveries are accepted as common place.

It is always a pleasure to read and write about such important organisms. My brief for writing this book is one self-satisfaction. I have enjoyed myself writing this book. Hope students will also feel the same while reading it. I remember with gratitude my ‘microbial mentors’ Professors R.N. Tandon, T.s. Sạdasivan, K.s. Bhargava, K.s. Bilgrami, H.D. Kumar and Dr p.c. Misra. Thanks are due to my two research colleagues Dr H.N. Gour and Dr Miss Sunila Mathur for many stimulating and enjoyable discussions.

[EBOOK] A Textbook Of Fungi, Bacteria and Viruses, H.C. DUBE, VANI EDUCATIONAL BOOKS

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[EBOOK] HYDROPONICS (Department of Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture), COPY RIGHT BY ALBERT

Soil is usually the most available growing medium and plants normally grow in it. It provides anchorage, nutrients, air, water, etc. for successful plant growth. Modification of a soil an alternate growing medium tends to be expensive. However, soils do pose serious limitations for plant growth, at times. Presence of disease causing organisms and nematodes, unsuitable soil reaction, unfavourable soil compaction, poor drainage, degradation due to erosion, etc. are some of them.
Further, continuous cultivation of crops has resulted in poor soil fertility, which in turn has reduced the opportunities for natural soil fertility build up by microbes. This situation has lead to poor yield and quality.

In addition, conventional crop growing in soil (Open Field Agriculture) is difficult as it involves large space, lot of labour and large volume of water. And in some places like metropolitan areas, soil is not available for crop growing. Another serious problem experienced since of late is the dif ficulty to hire labour for conventional open field agriculture.

[EBOOK] HYDROPONICS (Department of Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture), COPY RIGHT BY ALBERT

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[EBOOK] Opportunities and challenges for research on food and nutrition security and agriculture in Europe, By EASAC

National academies of science have a long tradition of engaging widely to strengthen the evidence base to underpin the delivery of enhanced food and nutrition security at regional and national levels. EASAC, the European Academies' Science Advisory Council, has produced this report for European audiences as a contribution to a project worldwide initiated by IAP, the InterAcademy Partnership, the global network of science academies. The IAP work brings together regional perspectives in parallel from Africa. Asia, the Americas and Europe on the opportunities for the science-policy interface, identifying how research can contribute to resolving challenges for agriculture, food systems and nutrition.

Our EASAC report combines analysis of the current status in Europe with exploration of ways forward. Overconsumption of calorie-dense foods leading to overweight and obesity creates a major public health problem in Europe; but Europeans are not immune from other concerns about food and nutrition security and must also recognise the impact of their activities on the rest of the world. We define the goal of food and nutrition security as providing access for all to a healthy and affordable diet that is environmentally sustainable. We recognise the necessity to take account of diversity: in food systems and dietary intakes within and between countries, and in the variability of nuưient requirements in vulnerable groups within populations and across the individual's life cycle.

In our report we take an integrative food systems approach to cover inter-related issues for resource efficiency, environmental stability, resilience and the public health agenda, also addressing issues for local-global interconnectedness of systems. Setting priorities for increasing agricultural production through sustainable intensification must take account of pressures on other critical natural resources, particularly water, soil and energy, and the continuing need to avoid further loss in ecosystem biodiversity. Dealing with food and nutrition security must include both supply-side and demand-side issues: reducing food waste and changing to healthier consumption patterns will reduce pressure on land and other resources.

The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals and Convention on Climate Change objectives provide critically important general frameworks for meeting the challenges to food and nutrition security but mandate renewed engagement by science to clarify trade-offs among goals and address the complexities of evidence-based policies and programmes. For example, it is becoming dearer that climate change will have negative impacts on food systems in various ways, necessitating the introduction of climate-smart agriculture (such as
the adoption of plant breeding innovations to cope with drought) but also that agriculture itself contributes substantially to climate change Mitigating this contribution depends on climate-smart food systems (such as land-sparing and agronomic management practices) together with efforts to influence consumer behaviours associated with excessive agricultural greenhouse gas emissions (overconsumption of calories and high meat intake). Therefore, taking account of the accruing scientific evidence, changing dietary consumption could bring co-benefits to health and to climate change.

In our report we have focused on scientific opportunities: how the current scientific evidence base can shape understanding of challenges by the public, serve as a resource for innovation, and inform policy options, and what the research agenda should be to fill current knowledge gaps. It is urgent to continue to build critical mass in research and innovation and to mobilise that resource in advising policymakers and other stakeholders. We emphasise the vitally important role of basic research in characterising new frontiers in science and of long-term commitment to investing in research to enable, establish and evaluate innovation. This innovation must encompass social and institutional, as well as technological, innovation.

We frame our specific recommendations within die context of strategic dimensions that determine a wide range of actions in science and policy:

•    The interfaces between research on the nutrition-sensitivity of food and agriculture systems and on environmental sustainability must be addressed to connect scientific knowledge on natural resources to the food value chain. The sustainable bioeconomy and circular economy provide for new overarching frameworks, going beyond traditional concepts of economic sectors.

•    The focus cannot be only on populations in general but should also cover particular issues for vulnerable groups such as mothers and children, the elderly, patients and migrants. This requires systematic, longitudinal data collection to generate robust resources, together with cross-disciplinary research, encompassing economics and social sciences as well as the natural sciences, to understand vulnerable groups and the more general aspects of consumer behaviour.

•    Large data sets, based on comparable and verifiable methodology, are a vital tool to support innovation throughout the food system and to prepare for risk and uncertainty. There is much to be done to fill data gaps, to agree improved procedures for data collection, curation, analysis and sharing, while also addressing data ownership and privacy concerns.

•    To contribute with evidence to options for reform of the present Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) towards devising a European Union (EU) food and nutrition policy that rewards innovation, reduces risks, focusses on public goods, takes account of the varying national interests and cultures, and contributes to benefitting the rest of the world.

•    EU development assistance should be viewed broadly, to include international collaborative research; research in the EU on prionties for global food systems, their resilience and perturbations; sharing of science and technology especially related to food and nutrition security; and resolution

of international governance issues of food and agriculture.

•    Ensuring that regulatory and management frameworks are evidence-based, proportionate and sufficiently flexible to prepare for and enable advances in science.

Within this overall framework for European strategy

development, our report identifies many opportunities

to generate, connect and use research. Among specific

scientific opportunities are the following.

Nutrition, food choices and food safety

•    Understanding the drivers of dietary choices, consumer demand and how to inform and change behaviour, including acceptance of innovative foods and innovative diets.

•    Tackling the perverse price incentives to consume high-calorie diets and introducing new incentives for healthy nutrition.

•    Clarifying what is a sustainable, healthy diet and how to measure sustainability related to consumption.

•    Exploring individual responsiveness to nutrition and the links to health.

•    Promoting research interfaces between nutrition, food science and technology, the public sector and industry.

•    Evaluating how to make food systems more nutrition-sensitive.

•    Characterising sources of food contamination and the opportunities for reducing food safety concerns
that may arise from implementation of other policy objectives (for example, the circular economy goal of recycling of waste materials).

•    Compiling analytical tests to authenticate food origin and quality.

•    Assessing any disconnects between the implications of the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP21) objectives for livestock and meat consumption, and standard recommendations for consuming healthy diets.

Plants and animals in agriculture

•    For livestock, determining how to capitalise on genomics research for food production and for animal health and welfare. This includes the rapidly advancing science of genome editing and the increasing significance of charaơerising genetic material conserved in gene banks.

•    For the oceans, improving the knowledge base for sustainable harvest and culturing of lower trophic level marine resources and exploring the potential for biomass provision to diminish pressures on agricultural land, freshwater and fertilisers.

•    For crops, progressing understanding of the genetics and metabolomics of plant product quality. This also includes capitalising on the new opportunities coming within range for the targeted modification of crops using genome editing.

•    For plants as for animal science, it is important to protect wild gene pools and to continue sequencing of genetic resources to unveil the potential of genetic resources.

Environmental sustainability

•    Evaluating climate resilience throughout food systems and transforming food systems to mitigate their global warming impact.

•    Capitalising on opportunities to co-design research across disciplines to understand better the nexus food-water-other ecosystem services and to inform the better coordination of relevant policy instruments, including the CAP, Water Framework Directive and the Habitats Directive. Efforts to increase the efficiency of food systems should not focus on increasing agricultural productivity by ignoring environmental costs.

•    Developing an evidence base to underpin land and water use in providing the range of private and public goods required in a sustainable way, appropriate to place.

Regarding biofuel choices, the immediate research objectives for the next generation of biofuels include examining the potential of cellulosic raw materials.

•    Research should continue to explore the value of synthetic biology and other approaches to engineer systems with improved photosynthesis. There is also continuing need for research to clarify impacts of biomass production on land use and food prices.

•    For soil, expanding research to understand and quantify the potential value of soil in carbon sequesưation and, hence, climate change mitigation. There is a broad research agenda to characterise other functions of soil and the soil microbiome and contribute to the bioeconomy, for example as a source of novel antibiotics. Research is also important to support cost-effective soil monitoring and management, particularly to underpin the reduced use of fertilisers and improve biodiversity.

Waste

•    Committing to the collection of more robust data on the extent of waste in food systems and the effectiveness of interventions to reduce waste at local and regional levels.

•    Ensuring the application of food science and technology and agronomy in novel approaches to processing food and reducing waste, and

in informing the intersection between circular economy and bioeconomy policy objectives.

Trade and markets

•    Increasing commitment to data colleơion on trade flows and prices with modelling and analysis of databases.
•    Examining linkages between extreme events and price volatility, evaluating the effects of regulatory policy instruments in agricultural commodity markets and the price transmission between global commodity markets and local food systems.

•    Ascertaining the science agenda for understanding the characteristics of fair trade systems, for example the non-tariff conditions associated with variation in regulatory policy, labelling or other food safety requirements.

Innovation trends

In each of the above-mentioned specific areas of science opportunities, the linkages between basic science and problem-solving applied science seem likely to become more closely related in the future. This is so in the fields of biosciences, digitisation, mathematics and farm precision technologies, health and behaviour, as well as in complex environmental and food system modelling. This has consequences for the redesign of the science landscape and for science teaching and the training of next-generation scientists to address food, nutrition and agriculture issues.

We emphasise the key role of agricultural sciences for European competitiveness and urge a rebalancing of commitments: to shift budget items from agricultural subsidies towards innovation in the pending reform of the CAP.

It is now important to be more ambitious in identifying and using the scientific opportunities. Our messages are aimed at European and national policymakers, member academies, the scientific community and other stakeholders. We will also use this analysis of European evidence as the regional contribution to the IAP integrated phase of the project, to develop interregional and global recommendations.

[EBOOK] Opportunities and challenges for research on food and nutrition security and agriculture in Europe, By EASAC

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[EBOOK] Biochar Systems for Smallholders in Developing Countries (Leveraging Current Knowledge and Exploring Future Potential for Climate-Smart Agriculture), Sebastian M. Scholz et al., Published by THE WORLD BANK

Three of the biggest challenges of the twenty-first century are the need to nearly double food production by 2050, to adapt and build resilience to a more and more challenging climatic environment, and to simultaneously achieve a substantial reduction in atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations. The surge of interest in climate-smart agriculture, which focuses on solutions to the three challenges, has sparked curiosity in using biochar as a tool to fight climate change while also improving soil fertility. Biochar systems are particularly relevant in developing country' contexts and could be leveraged to address global challenges associated with food production and climate change. However the potential effects of biochar application to soils are diverse and its climate impact is contingent on the design of the system into which it is integrated. 'Hius biochar systems are inherently complex and further research is needed to understand their associated opportunities and risks in developing countries.

There are a number of reasons why biochar systems might be particularly relevant in developing-country contexts. The potential for biochar to improve soil fertility' could result in increased crop yields from previously degraded soils for smallholder farmers. Improved cookstoves that produce biochar as well as heat for cooking could reduce indoor aữ pollution and time spent on fuel gathering. Both of these results could be beneficial to forests. Enhanced food production capacity could potentially decrease the need to clear more forested land for agriculture, and more efficient cookstoves could decrease wood gathering from forests already in decline. It is vital that further research is undertaken to fill the gaps in our knowledge of biochar systems.

This report offers a review of what is known about opportunities and risks of biochar systems including soil and agricultural impacts, climate change impacts, social impacts, and competing uses of biomass. The report benefited from its wide-ranging methodology including a desk review of existing literature; a two-step survey of biochar systems that elicited 154 responses to the initial survey, and 48 responses on the follow-up survey to learn more about the social and cultural barriers to biochar adoption; an expert workshop in Washington, DC to assist in analysis of the collected data; development of a typology of biochar systems; and a life-cycle assessment of selected systems in Kenya, Vietnam, and Senegal.

[EBOOK] Biochar Systems for Smallholders in Developing Countries (Leveraging Current Knowledge and Exploring Future Potential for Climate-Smart Agriculture), Sebastian M. Scholz et al., Published by THE WORLD BANK

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[EBOOK] FRIENDS OF THE RICE FARMER: Helpful Insects, Spiders, and Pathogens, B.M. Shepard, A.T. Barrion and J.A. Litsinger, IRRI

This booklet illustrates representative examples of some of the more common species of predators, parasites, and diseases of insect pests of rice. It can be used with the IRRI booklet Field problems of tropical rice, which provides information only on pest species.

Before intelligent decisions about pesticide applications can be made, it is necessary to be able to identify which insect species are pests and which are beneficial. The occurrence of beneficial organisms varies depending upon location, time of year, and crop cultural practices. Thus we made no attempt to rank the groups by their relative importance.

Scientific language has been minimized so that the descriptions can be more easily understood. The pictures will provide an easy way of identifying beneficial species and thereby help prevent unnecessary chemical treatments.

Like Field Problems, this booklet was designed to facilitate its easy and inexpensive translation and copublication in languages other than English. IRRl does not ask for payment of royalties or payments for translation of IRRl materials published in developing nations. For details, contact the Communication and Publications Department, International Rice Research Institute, PO Box 933, Manila Philippines.

[EBOOK] FRIENDS OF THE RICE FARMER: Helpful Insects, Spiders, and Pathogens, B.M. Shepard, A.T. Barrion and J.A. Litsinger, IRRI

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[EBOOK] SOIL BIOLOGY - Advanced Techniques in Soil Microbiology, Ajit Varma and Ralf Oelmuller, Published by Springer

There is general belief and admission that important, innovative and novel ideas emerge over a cup of ‘Indian Darjeeling tea’ or a glass of ‘German beer’. The editors of this book were sipping a cup of tea on the lush green garden lawns of North Maharastra University, Jalgaon, India. The weather was congenial and most suitable for materializations of original ideas. The genesis of this book underlines the concept developed in 2006.

The field of microbiology began concurrently with the discovery of microorganisms by two Fellows of The Royal Society, Robert Hooke and Antony van Leeuwenhoek, during the period 1665-1683. Later, during the golden era of microbiology, noted scientists Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch laid a sound foundation for the modern microbiology. The study of microorganisms has became a valuable science in the last 100 years as it has provided both the means to control a number of infectious diseases and the experimental systems for the development of molecular biology. New developments in biotechnology and environmental microbiology signify that microbiology will continue to be an exciting field of study in the future. Various modern tools and techniques are required for a proper understanding of the roles of microbes in the causation of infectious diseases and the recycling of chemical elements in the biosphere. Assorted laboratory experiments not only motivate researchers and students by stimulating interest and enjoyment but also enhance the acquisition of scientific knowledge along with the development of ‘scientific attitudes’, such as open-mindedness and objectivity.

There are numerous textbooks and review papers dealing with state-of-the-art of various aspects of molecular biology of microorganisms. However, the readers get lost in initiating the experiments due to lack of suitable and easy protocols. They have to search for diverse methods and techniques in a variety of literature and journals and still do not obtain the complete information dealing with the protocols in a concise manner. This book is an attempt to overcome the inherent cumbersome search process. Every effort was made to present the protocols in a very simple manner for easy understanding of undergraduate, graduates, postgraduates, post doctorates, active scientists and researchers.

Soil, the main contributor to plant nourishment, is the top layer of the Earth’s surface and consists of rock and mineral particles mixed with organic matter. Soil microbiology is the study of the microorganisms in soil, their functions, and the consequences of their activities on the nature of the soil and the effect on the growth and health of plant life. Just a few grams of soil, less than a teaspoonful, may contain hundreds of millions to billions of microbes. Not only is the total number of microorganisms in fertile soil quite high, but also, together, they weigh a lot. Soil microbial biomass can range from several hundred to thousands of pounds per acre.

The most plentiful microbes in soil are one-celled bacteria and fungi, which produce long, slender strings of cells called filaments or hyphae. The actinomy-cetes come between these two organisms. It is the actinomycetes that give soil its characteristic earthy smell. In this volume, the editors have accumulated various advanced molecular approaches for studying the different soil microorganisms for the benefit of humankind. Different techniques for measuring microbial biomass and activity in soil have been developed. Primers in Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) techniques for species identification and other forgotten tools like quantitative histochemistry are discussed in details in this book with the hope that this would promote the understanding of microbes by students and advanced researchers alike.

The editors have brought together the diverse topics related to various aspects of molecular approaches to the detection of soil microbes, namely assessing and detecting soil micro-fungal diversity and providing insight into their feasibility. Various problems associated with the dilution plating technique, importance of the rDNA gene in fungal systematics, the reliability of other molecular approaches (especially Denaturing Gradient Gel Electrophoresis) and their drawbacks are discussed. Various modern tools and techniques like automated fluorescent DNA sequencing strategy, mRNA quantitation using real time PGR, RNAi technology, transcriptome analysis and immuno-techniques are handled by subject experts of these specific fields for clear and easy understanding for all. Different widely used methods like fatty acid methylester (FAME), phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) analyses and denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) are elucidated with their advantages and limitations outlined. DGGE and RISA protocols for microbial community analysis in soil are also one of the highlights of this book.

The soil zone located in and around the active roots is called the rhizosphere. This zone has high microbial activity. Materials released from roots, called exudates, create a food-rich environment for the growth of microorganisms. Rhi-zosphere microorganisms in turn help plants by fixing nitrogen from the soil air, dissolving soil minerals and decomposing organic matter, all of which allow roots to obtain essential nutrients. Plant-Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPRs) generate a variety of chemicals that stimulate plant growth. The bacteria grow and persist in the rhizosphere of non-woody roots. Various screening methods for PGPRs are described in this book.

A special kind of fungus called mycorrhizae also associates with higher plants. By colonizing large areas of roots and reaching out into the soil, mycorrhizae assist in transport of soil nutrients and water into the plant. The latest methods for conducting experiments and research in mycorrhiza have been described. Cultivation of a group of mycorrhiza-like fungi belonging to family Sebacinales is enumerated. One of the members of Sebacinales which provides stress tolerance activity against heavy metals and induced pathogen resistance in cereals is discussed.

Authors have brought forth diverse approaches and methods to study the mechanisms behind the observed pathogen resistance induced by Piriformos-pora indica.

Model organism A. thallium was used as the plant partner to understand the molecular basis for beneficial plant/microbe interactions and this is also discussed in this edition. Several other techniques like ion cyclotron resonance Fourier transform mass spectrometry (ICR-FT/MS) for non-targeted metabo-lomics of molecular interactions in the rhizosphere are presented. Immuno-technology for the localization of acid phosphatase using native gel bands in p. itidica and other soil microorganism are elaborated in this volume of the Soil Biology series.

We are grateful to the many people who helped to bring this volume to light. We wish to thank Dr. Dieter Czeschlik and Dr. Jutta Lindenborn, Springer Heidelberg, for generous assistance and patience in finalizing the volume. Finally, specific thanks go to our families, immediate, and extended, not forgetting those who have passed away, for their support or their incentives in putting everything together. Ajit Varma in particular is very thankful to Dr. Ashok K. Chauhan, Founder President of the Ritnand Balved Fducation Foundation (an umbrella organization of Amity Institutions), New Delhi, for the kind support and constant encouragement received. Special thanks are due to my esteemed friend and well-wisher Professor Dr. Sunil Saran, Director General, Amity Institute of Biotechnology and Adviser to Founder President, Amity Universe, all faculty colleagues Drs. Amit c. Kharkwal, Harsha Kharkwal, Shwet Kamal, Neeraj Verma, Atimanav Gaur and Debkumari Sharma and my Ph.D. students Ms. Aparajita Das, Mr. Ram Prasad, Ms. Manisha Sharma, Ms. Sreelekha Chat-terjee, Ms. Swati Tripathi, Mr. Vipin Mohan Dan and Ms. Geetanjali Chauhan. The technical support received from Mr. Anil Chandra Bahukhandi is highly appreciated.

[EBOOK] SOIL BIOLOGY - Advanced Techniques in Soil Microbiology, Ajit Varma and Ralf Oelmuller, Published by Springer

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[EBOOK] ILLUSTRATED GUIDE TO INTEGRATED PESTMANAGEMENT IN RICE IN TROPICAL ASIA, W. H. Reissig, E. A. Heinrichs, J. A. Litsinger, K. Moody, L. Fiedler, T. W. Mew, and A.T. Barrion, IRRI

In the past, farmers in tropical Asia grew traditional rice cultivars and either relied primarily on cultural, mechanical, and physical methods of pest control or practiced no pest control. Pesticide application was limited because the yield potential of traditional varieties was too low to justify additional investments. Although pests destroyed part of each crop, severe outbreaks or epidemics were rare.

The widespread introduction of high-yielding rice cultivars in Asia in the last two decades and the associated changes in production practices have improved conditions for insects, diseases, weeds, and rodents. The higher yield potential of the new rices also made increased pesticide application economically attractive to farmers.

The replacement of traditional control methods by pesticides could increase hazards to nontarget organisms, however, and lead to the development of pesticide resistance and environmental contamination. To minimize such problems, Asian farmers must again diversify their pest control practices — a strategy that scientists now term integrated pest management (IPM).

Recently, scientists working in national rice production programs and at international agricultural research centers have written extensively about IPM for tropical rice. Many of the publications are research-oriented, fragmented, and too technical for nonscientists. Furthermore, much of the highly specialized information often focuses on a single species or a small group of pests.

This publication provides practical and comprehensive information to IPM workers in rice fields throughout tropical Asia. It briefly discusses rice plant structure and growth stages and stresses their relation to pest management. There are separate sections on cultural control of rice pests, resistant rice varieties, natural enemies of rice insect pests, and pesticides. The biology and management of the major groups of rice pests — insects, diseases, weeds, and rodents — are discussed in separate sections. Finally, integrated control measures for the entire rice pest complex and the implementation of IPM strategies at the farmer level are described.

This volume represents the combined efforts of many persons. The style and first draft of the text were developed by W. H. Reissig of the New York Agricultural Experiment Station, Geneva, New York, USA, during a 1979-80 sabbatic leave at IRRI. Reissig's firsthand experience in developing IPM strategies for farmers gave him the necessary background to organize the information in a useful form. E. A. Heinrichs, IRRl entomologist, reviewed the technical material and worked with IRRl editors and artists after Reissig's departure.

J. A. Litsinger, IRRl cropping systems entomologist, provided technical information on the biology and management of many insect pests and composed the section on cultural control. K. Moody, IRRl agronomist, supplied technical information and reviewed the section on biology and control of weeds. L. A. Fiedler, a research biologist from the Denver Wildlife Research Center, stationed at the National Crop Protection Center, University of the Philippines at Los Banos, acted as technical consultant in the preparation of the section on Biology and Management of Riceland Rats in Southeast Asia. T. W. Mew, IRRI plant pathologist, provided technical information and reviewed the section on disease management. A. T. Barrion, IRRl entomology department senior research assistant, served as technical consultant and worked with artists in the preparation of the section on Natural Enemies of Rice Insect Pests.

This volume can be easily translated into the various languages of Southeast Asia and serve as a key source of information for IPM training programs. We hope that it will stimulate the implementation of IPM technology by rice farmers in tropical Asia as well as the development of similar publications for other rice-growing regions.

[EBOOK] ILLUSTRATED GUIDE TO INTEGRATED PESTMANAGEMENT IN RICE IN TROPICAL ASIA, W. H. Reissig, E. A. Heinrichs, J. A. Litsinger, K. Moody, L. Fiedler, T. W. Mew, and A.T. Barrion, IRRI

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